Microfinance Impacts On Social Vulnerability Health And Social Care Essay

The take away in for reported in this dissertation was on Impact of Microfinance on Social delineation in impression income families of Pakistan .The determination of this look into was to canvas the impaction of microfinance upon the dangerous sector i.e. the petty(a) income Ho aimh rargons of Pakistan. The primary information was ga in that locationd by drifting questionnaires and run oning interviews. SPSS box was applied to analyse informations for frequences and marker tabular matter. The consequences were interpreted by unc appearh rules of statistics. The findings suggested that there is a minuteant impact of microfinance in turn up belt tidy sum thinness of the low income families. The findings showed that the microfinance customers had been helped by microfinance loans to elate their metre of keep and their social position. Microfinance establishments beget ameliorate their criterion of sustenance. It has anyway helped them by change magnitude their admission price to health and financial statement inst in exclusivelyations. Microfinance has improves the conditions of lodging of its clients. thitherfore microfinance establishments help to diminish the social moving-picture show and has moved them come on of poverty.Chapter 1IntroductionOverview of the subject under considerationThe operations of microfinance atomic number 18 non much polar from that of mer shadowertile Bankss but the gaffer difference prevarications in their client section which is the piteous for the microfinance. Challenges that ar characterd by the worthless argon deplorable wellness, deficiency of culture, unworthy lodging, and deficiency of lodging and unpredicted menaces like inbred catastrophes. These factors influence the economic status of the sorry either bit good. Microfinance foc pulmonary tuberculosiss on these issues to cut down social pic of the worthless. near of the issues that take aim impact on the social characterisation of the hapless atomic number 18 Poor wellness is cardinal of the chief cornerstones that furbish ups slew under fire(predicate) and does non let them to draw kayoed of poorness. Death of the staff of brio story earner leaves the full family helpless and accordingly falling of one fragment crazy makes the full family unstable. Education is one of the major constituents of microfinance function. Microfinance allows the client to lick finish their growing income activities. In the absence of proper instruction the hapless be unable to motive power egress of poorness. Fiscal preparation and supplying of bad literacy atomic number 18 of merchandise move of microfinance merchandises. theatre helps the hapless to make assets. spend in lodging agencies in investing in worry since the hapless normally work from place. Proper lodging gives the hapless with admission fee to tinonic installations. Income required for intellectual nourishment economic consumption and other outgos is critical and should be cud to m own(prenominal)t individualised the ho utilisation stable. Standard of life determines the type of unrecorded the hapless be populatingBackground of the subjectHistory of MicrofinanceMicrofinance is an old construct but it became really popular in the 70 s by Dr Muhammad Yunus. Muhammad yunus realized that there would be a batch of enterprisers among his state but these nation could nt get down their ain revive due to miss of capital. Muhammad Yunus established a buzzword that would entrust a few hundred dollars to the hapless to get down a newly concern. He established the Grameen bank in 1983 in Bangladesh. His chief aim was to assist hapless tidy sum move out of poorness by trying them with loans. Microfinance refers to provide of pecuniary function like loan, insurance, nose eggs to the hapless. As the hapless can non acquire these services from commercial Bankss, microfinance provides them with these services. Microfinance was introduced in Bangladesh in 1976 and of all time since it has gained importance in the fiscal universe. Microfinance has shown a positive impact on its clients over the old ages. Surveies puddle shown that bulk of the loans to travel great(p) female persons and adult females invest them in concern and better their and their household s criterions of lifeSocial exposure in PakistanSocial exposure has many another(prenominal) dimensions. The hapless in Pakistan pitch non scarcely low income but they similarly lack admission charge to basic demands such as instruction, wellness, bonny drink pee and proper sanitation. The latter undermines and bounds their capablenesss, bounds their chances to procure employment, consequences in their social ejection and exposes them to exogenic dazes. Then the barbarous rhythm of poorness is accentuated when so generatorities constructions exclude the most vulnerable from the determination fashioni ng procedure. Poverty is one of the most of import jobs that argon faced by state. But due to increase of economic activities and policies of the authorities, there are some(a) good Numberss came on poorness and poorness decrease. Social exposure, social exclusion and social inequality are found in different parts of cracker-barrel Pakistan. There are different social constructions that govern the country-style life in Pakistan. In rural Pakistan socially vulnerable groups hire limited admission to labour market and social services and this parturiency rails to poverty. More than one-half of the rural population in Pakistan is landless and rural poorness is highest among those who own no land. It is found that 42 per centum of the population is populating in families with illiterate caputs is hapless. Net primary registration rates are moreover 37 per centum for the hapless and this per centum is even lower in adult females and kids. There is the front of affinity and caste system in the rural Pakistan and the presence of powerful groups leads to affairs like admission fee to instruction, wellness and other servicesLack of instruction and deficiency of entree to wellness and public services are one of the grounds of poorness. Supplying loans to the hapless is non a new thought, any bit early as 1960s Agri heathen bank has been supplying loans to the husbandmans to purchase fertilisers, high giving up dupeds and machinery. These Bankss failed to better the criterion of life of the hapless because they merely provided loan and did non offer services of deposit maintaining and did non hold any economy merchandises. MF attempts to supply solution to this job. MF provides fiscal services include working capital loans, consumer scholarship, nest eggs, pensions, insurance, and coin transportation services. Microfinance covers a broad scope of services that is non confined merely to micro re erudition.Importance of the panorama with regard to the universeOne-half of the universe s population is populating on an income of less than two dollars a twenty-four hours. In these hapless communities one kid out of every five does non populate to see his birthday. Microfinance claims to supply the hapless an entree to capital giving them an chance to travel up the economic ladder. Examination of microfinance operations around the universe has indicated that hapless who use microfinance merchandises ware become less vulnerable and are able to travel themselves out of poorness. Even those who managed to travel out of poorness, it took them 5 to 10 old ages to travel out of poorness. Impact appraisal of microfinance is of import to read the potency and outreach of microfinance in run intoing the discipline aims, Besides an of import inculcate principal the should be considered is that microfinance services are an instrument of development and non an terminal in themselves. In the planetary conflict against poorness microfinance is considered an of import and effectual tool. It increases the chances of the hapless by supplying them entree to the capital and helps them by increasing in their income and besides increases the societal position of the borrowers. Many givers, societal investors and form _or_ system of government shapers have plunk for the growing of this on an international graduated table with important flows of subsidising grants and financess.Importance of the survey with regard to PakistanMicrofinance sector began in Pakistan through rural development labours that were funded by the givers. The Agha khan rural support plan suppositious account has been imitated all a baffle Pakistan and since so microfinance has become an critical instrument in application program with the issues of the hapless of the Pakistan. It is considered that microfinance should be employ to cut down poorness by 33 per centum.This belief is mostly supported by informations and grounds all a bollocks up Pakistan. Along with cut imbibe poorness microfinance in Pakistan is besides seen as an of import instrument for gender authorization. The Government of Pakistan and rural support plans in the state think that by supplying recognition to adult females there can income coevals and the societal and economic position of adult females in the family and in the community can be improved. As it is believed that microfinance can extinguish poorness, can authorise adult females and eradicate unemployment but calm down there is non nice research that supports all these claims.Research inquiryWhat is the impact of microfinance on societal exposure in low income families of Pakistan?Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEWWarner ( 2009 ) conducted a research on societal exposure, where she defines the term, examines policy significance of societal exposure and discusses the value of survey of societal exposure for hazard direction. The cardinal ground privy this research was to see the factor that are related to e xposure for hazard decrease intent and discourse the major concern that should be considered while making research. The author discusses the awkward in mensurating societal exposure she says that chief methodological bank string about societal exposure is that it deals with our certain societal elements that are hard to mensurate. The author points out that there should be tools that should be made by the policy shaper that should assist in mensurating societal exposure stainless and easy. The determination were that societal exposure is merely non put on the line decrease because it consider three of import component and those elements are people, societal systems and non structural solutions. The author references chances that are present to extinguish societal exposure are by authorising adult females and bettering the position in the society and by utilizing hazard direction tools like microfinance to better the hazard direction capablenesss of the vulnerable population.Uni ted Nations secretariats ( 2003 ) published a deliberate on universe societal state of affairs, number ones and challenge of societal exposure. The aim of this subject was to place the generator of societal exposure because to accomplish decrease in societal exposure it is of import to understand its commences. The mull over states that societal exposure is the exposure of societal groups. These societal groups include adult females, kids, older people and people with disablements and minorities. The development states that these groups face societal exposure due to different societal, economic and cultural barriers. These groups are excluded from income market every bit good as are socially excluded. This study identifies that a barbarous circle is created by the interaction of poorness and exposure because hapless people are the 1 who are most vulnerable to income dazes and stuff losingss and these dazes and losingss make them unable to travel out to poorness. In order to cut down poorness it is of import to understand what makes these people vulnerable. The most of import beginnings of exposure identified in this study are income security and deficiency of entree to fiscal markets but these are non the lone beginnings other societal ailments such as hapless wellness, incommensurate entree to wellness services, no entree or unequal entree to instruction are besides major beginnings of societal exposure. Apart from this societal exclusion on the footing of gender and civilization besides lead to societal exposure. This study identifies the demand for societal and economic policies that help in creative use of employment of these societal groups. The most of import beginning of societal exposure identified in this study is income insecurity thence economic growing and creative activity of employment should be unplowed in head when making policies to cut down societal exposure. As societal exposure arises due to societal, cultural and economic barrie rs, hence societal and economic policies should be integrated to cut down societal exposure. This study indicates that developing states should implement stairss for socially vulnerable groups.Philip and rayhan ( 2004 ) conducted a research on what are the causes and what is the relationship between poorness and societal exposure. The cardinal ground behind this research was to look at different significances of poorness and societal exposure and to analyze their interrelatedness in order to better the life criterions in the development states. To transport out the research they did interdisciplinary compendium of both poorness and exposure by reexamining literature and by look at the instance surveies of different developing states. The determination of this research was that exposure and poorness are multidimensional footings i.e. they include societal, economic, political and environmental factors and are complex footings. They are interrelated in such a style that each cause s the other, which means that poorness makes people vulnerable to societal, economic and environmental dazes, their exposure escalate poorness and and then do them vulnerable to far dazes. For measuring of exposure, factors of economic efficiency which are land productiveness, labour productiveness, and per capita income, factors for societal equity which are people below poorness line, life anticipation, and female literacy should be measured. PROBLEMS OF POOR HEALTH SHOULD BE ADDRESSED BECAUSE THEY HAVE BEEN ready TO BE THE MAIN RESONS of poorness and societal exposure.Freyssinet ( 2009 ) worked on how to mensurate societal exposure. The social function of mensurating societal exposure is that it can assist in minimising the indecent impact of economic, societal, political and environmental dazes and aid in interrupting the rhythm of aims every bit good as subjective. The article states some variant that can assist in mensurating societal exposure the variables are health y life anticipation, poorness, unemployment and debt ratios and others.Wisner ( 2006 ) worked on the hazard decrease indexs of societal exposure. The cardinal ground behind this research was to analyze the indexs of societal exposure for its better apprehension. He states that those indexs are used whose informations is available from family study or informations collected by different disposals. He states that an of import index of societal exposure is educate safety. check safety includes the per centum of crop available, entree to instruction services and protection to go on instruction, what is primary school registration, figure of instructors and pupil per school. Another of import index of societal exposure is to analyze the diverseness of economic activity of a family. It forget include ratio of people gaining from support and people gaining from fabricating. Another of import index is homelessness which can be measured by face at the per centum of people homeless. The writer states that in order to footmark and to cut down societal exposure these are the most of import index that should be taken into history. He concludes that indexs of societal exposure are found in the establishments, support, substructures and other societal factors.Matin, Hulme and Ruthford ( 2004 ) conducted a research on finance for hapless from microfinance to micro fiscal services. The purpose of this research was to run ways how fiscal merchandises can be designed and delivered to the hapless in a better manner. This paper states that supplying hapless people with microfinance entrust assist them cover with poorness which will take to obliteration of poorness. Microfinance is total for cut downing exposure by giving hapless entree to wellness and instruction services and is a mean for increasing income. This article states that there are two microfinance supplier in ceremonial, semi testicle and formal. casual suppliers are unregistered such as money loaners and s emi formal suppliers are microfinance establishments that are normally NGO s and formal suppliers are those which are capable to banking jurisprudence of the state. The article concludes that the hapless need fiscal services for care and betterment of their support. All informal, semi formal and formal suppliers can assist hapless in accomplishing these.Radermacher et.al ( 2010 ) conducted a research on micro insurance, as a tool to cut down exposure due to costs of ill-health. The cardinal ground behind this research was that hapless households frequently due to illness lose all their assets due wellness disbursals which they cover from their earning or from borrowing. Even if such hapless family have entree to microfinance but microfinance wo nt cover indirect disbursals like transit costs and income red that occurs due to illness. Therefore there is demand for micro insurance which non merely cover these wellness disbursals but besides the indirect disbursals. For transporting o ut research family study was conducted in low income territories on Nepal. Harmonizing to the study it was found that periodical rate of illness was more than 10 % in the territories and female, babies and older people are more vulnerable to illness as compared to work forces. come off was besides do to lead the heath disbursals of hapless family and it was found it is increasing over the old ages and that these hapless family at the same clip have limited entree to wellness services. The study besides showed the beginning used by these family to cover wellness cost and it was found that these family either exchange their assets to cover costs or re illuminate to adoption. Besides when adoption was done it was done from multiple beginnings to cover full disbursals. This article states that micro insurance is the finest tool for cut downing the exposure. Insurance besides non besides covers the health check cost but besides the index costs. The article states that the focal poi nt of micro insurance is that it should be low-cost, bettering the qualities of life of the hapless and cut down their poorness. Another of import factor of micro insurance is trust. The hapless family have limited budget and they will neer purchase the insurance policy unless they wo nt hold trust on the micro insurance supplier and it is undertaking of the insurance supplier to convert them that they will profit from buying the insurance policy. Therefore micro insurance is the best possible manner to cut down the exposure of low income family.Hamid, Robert and Mosley ( 2010 ) evaluated the wellness effects of micro wellness insurance arrangement. The cardinal ground behind this research was to analyze and analyze the impacts of micro wellness insurance arrangement on the consciousness of wellness, use of wellness attention and position of wellness of clients of Grameen bank in Bangladesh. For the research primary information was collected through family study in countries where t here are subdivisions of Grameen bank. Since more than 90 % of clients of Grameen bank are female therefore merely female were selected for the survey. The study included both interview and questionnaires. later roll uping the information a arrested development equation was derived from empirical theoretical account to analyze the impact of impact. The dependent variables taken were awareness of wellness and position of wellness. The determination were statistically of import for consciousness for wellness and use of heath attention but non for wellness position and those happening are important for enlargement and imitation of micro wellness insurance.Develtere and Huybrechts ( 2002 ) worked on looking at groundss on societal and economic impacts of Grameen bank and BRAC on the hapless in Bangladesh. The cardinal ground behind this research was to happen the societal and economic impact of these Bankss on the hapless. There are different ways to mensurating the impact of microfina nce on ingestion and income. The method used that the borrowers recall their ahead and laterwards state of affairs and utilizing this method it was found that per capita income and sum of recognition obtained from Grameen bank was positively related. The survey showed that Grameen bank improved the economic conditions of 91 % its clients. Research shows that income and ingestion should be taken as dependent variable for mensurating the impact of microfinance on the hapless. Apart from betterment in income and ingestion of the client it was seen that employment was besides generated. Besides the research indicates that the labour market involvement of adult females increase as comparison to adult females populating in nigh small towns. Researches states that micro recognition aid in cut downing poorness. BRAC every bit good as Grameen bank have seen that their tools for salvaging have help in cut downing exposure. Apart from betterment in their economic status their societal sta tus was besides improved the societal state of affairss of adult females as good of their household. Through microfinance these adult females achieved authorisation and now they non seen as a load but a beginning of income which has increased her position as her power of determination devising. Women of hapless family face a job of domestic force. In this research a arrested development analysis was done and it was found that adult females who are clients of BRAC and Grameen bank are better treated by their hubbies. These Bankss increased the mobility of adult females, expanded their cognition and increased consciousness of the universe.Asad Kamran Ghalib ( 2007 ) worked on societal impacts appraisal of microfinance. The purposes of this work was to look at the wider and societal impacts of microfinance and what tools and methods should be used to mensurate these societal impacts. For societal impacts assessment a generic theoretical accounts was used. The theoretical account consi sted of a control group and a plan group. The control group was non receptive to microfinance intervention while plan group. The control group was non exposed to microfinance intercession while plan group was the one which was exposed to microfinance intercession. For mensurating of societal impact of microfinance on plan group a societal impact beat index was used, which took account four variables. The variables were wellness, literacy, support and community. Each variable has its ain indexs. For informations aggregation secondary beginnings were used which include nose count study and informations published by regulative bureaus. The findings were that microfinance lead to adult females authorization and improved their living criterion and that of their household. There nutrition, hygiene and life conditions improved. Access to study increased their consciousness.Chapter 3MethodologyResearch TypeThe type of research is qualitative in nature. The nucleus purpose of the qualita tive research is to happen out the relationship between the pendent variable and the independent variable. The relationship between the variables is travel to be construct utilizing statistical tools such as cross tabular matter. Study shaft of the research will be im ad hominem. Then the purpose of this survey is to happen the extent to which microfinance reduces societal exposure.Data type and Research PeriodFor my research, I am traveling carry out primary research, for which I am traveling to carry on questionnaire utilizing a 5-point likert graduated table. 1 depicts powerfully dis conform to and 5 depicts strongly barrack. The questionnaire contains 12 inquiries, 3 inquiries per variable.Population, Working population and SampleFor my research, I am traveling to take a on the job population of 70 people who are clients of microfinance institutes in Lahore. Out of the 70 questionnaires, 20 questionnaires will be disqualified on some bases. Hence the sample size for my res earch will be 50.Theoretical Framework and Variables under treatmentMy independent variable is microfinance and the dependent variables areSocial exposureHealthEducationIncomeHousingStandard of lifeOperational DefinitionsHealthPoor wellness is one of the chief grounds that makes people vulnerable and does non let them to draw out of poorness. Death of the staff of life earner leaves the full family helpless and therefore falling of one particle ill makes the full family unstable.EducationEducation is one of the major constituents of microfinance services. Microfinance allows the client to pull off their growing income activities. In the absence of proper instruction the hapless are unable to travel out of poorness. Fiscal preparation and proviso of grownup literacy are of import parts of microfinance merchandises.HousingHousing helps the hapless to make assets. Investing in lodging agencies in investing in concern since the hapless normally work from place. Proper lodging gives the hapless with entree to basic installations.IncomeIncome required for nutritive ingestion and other outgos is critical and should be mass to maintain the house stable.Standard of lifeStandard of life determines the quality of unrecorded the hapless are populatingResearch HypothesisHolmium Microfinance leads to better wellness of its clientsH1 Microfinance does non take to better wellness of its clientsHolmium Microfinance leads to increase in instruction and school registration of its client s kidsH1 Microfinance does nt take to increase in instruction and school registration of its client s kidsHolmium Microfinance leads to increase in individualized income of its clientsH1 Microfinance does non take to increase in personal income of its clientsHolmium Microfinance improves the criterion of life of its clientsH1 Mic Ho Microfinance leads to betterment in lodging of its clientsH1 Microfinance does nt take to betterment in lodging of its clientsrofinance does nt better the criteri on of life of its clientsTechniquesAfter finishing the questionnaires, I am traveling to make traverse tabular matter analysis for my research.Datas AnalysisFor this research, SPSS will be used and transverse tabular matters will be carried out, later on which the significance of each variable will be determined and therefore each hypothesis will be proved.Data InterpretationThe consequences generated from SPSS would be unite and will so be further analyze utilizing the tabular arraies and the graphs and cross check analysis.Chapter 4RESULTS AND ANALYSISTable 1 Cross check of after microfinance your entree to wellness installations and overall wellness of your household members has improvedOverall wellness of your household members has improved absolute3.004.005.003.00After microfinance your entree to wellness installations improved3.0012254.005168295.00412016Entire10301050Holmium Microfinance leads to better wellness of its clientsH1 Microfinance does non take to better wellness o f its clientsThis cross tabular matter shows that 29 out of 50 clients oblige that after engagement in microfinance their entree to wellness installations has improved and 16 clients strongly agree that after engagement in microfinance their entree to wellness installations has improved. 30 out of 50 clients believe that overall wellness of their household members have improved. This tabular array shows that bulk of the clients agree that after engagement in microfinance their entree to wellness installations have improved and besides overall wellness of their household members have improved. Therefore it proves the hypothesis that microfinance leads to better wellness of its clients.Table 2 Cross check of after microfinance has the school registration rate of your kids increased and your monthly disbursal on instruction increasedHave your monthly disbursal of instruction increased?Entire3.004.005.003.00After engagement in microfinance has the school enrolment rate of your kids in creased?3.0014054.0051710325.0052613Entire11231650Holmium Microfinance leads to increase in instruction and school registration of its client s kidsH1 Microfinance does nt take to increase in instruction and school registration of its client s kidsThis cross tabular matter shows that 32 out of 50 clients agree that after engagement in microfinance the school enrolment rate of their kids has increased. 23 out of 50 clients agree that monthly disbursal of instruction has increased. This tabular array shows that bulk of the clients agree that after engagement in microfinance the school enrolment rate of their kids has increased and their monthly disbursal on instruction has increased. Therefore it proves the hypothesis that microfinance leads to increase in instruction an 500 school registration of its clients kids.Table 3 Cross check of after microfinance there is plus in your personal income and is your income mess for your household membersCountIs your income plenty for your house hold memberEntire2.003.004.002.00Has engagement in microfinance has led to increase in your personal income3.0030364.007613265.00261018Entire15122350Holmium Microfinance leads to increase in personal income of its clientsH1 Microfinance does non take to increase in personal income of its clientsThe tabular array of cross tabular matter shows that 26 out of 50 clients agree that after engagement in microfinance their personal income has increased. 23 out of 50 clients agree that their income is adequate for their household members. This tabular array shows that bulk of the clients agree that after engagement in microfinance their personal income has increased and their income is adequate for their household members. This tabular array shows that 15 out of 50 clients still believe that their income is non plenty for their household members. While 23 out of 50 believe that their income is adequate for their household members. Therefore the hypothesis holds true that microfinance leads to increase in personal income of its clients.Table 4 Cross check of microfinance leads to increase in ingestion of nutrient and your entree to clean imbibing H2O and hygiene environment has improvedCountDo you hold entree to clean imbibing H2O and hygiene environment?Entire2.003.004.005.002.00Do you believe that microfinance leads to increase in overall ingestion of nutrient3.00003144.0007176305.00473216Entire41423950Holmium Microfinance improves the criterion of life of its clientsH1 Microfinance does nt better the criterion of life of its clientsThe cross tabular matter tabular array shows that 30 out of 50 clients agree that microfinance has increased their overall ingestion of nutrient. 23 out of 50 clients agree that they have entree to clean imbibing H2O and hygiene environment. As the tabular array shows that 17 out of 50 clients agree that after engagement in microfinance their overall ingestion of nutrient has increased and they have entree to clean imbibing H2O and hygien e environment. Merely 4 out of 50 clients does nt hold entree to clean imbibing H2O. Therefore the hypothesis that microfinance improves the criterion of life of its clients keep true.Table 5 Cross check of microfinance leads to increase in outgo on house check and your house is strong plenty to defy any sort of catastropheCountIs your house strong plenty to with stand electrical drive or any other sort of natural catastrophe?Entire2.003.004.005.002.00 affaire in microfinance leads to increase in outgo on house fix3.00140054.0071591325.00263213Entire102512350Holmium Microfinance leads to betterment in lodging of its clientsH1 Microfinance does nt take to betterment in lodging of its clientsThis tabular array of cross tabular matter shows that 32 out 50 clients agree that engagement in microfinance leads to increase in outgo on house fix. 25 out of 50 clients agree that their house is strong plenty to with stand electrical storm or any other sort of natural catastrophe. 10 out of 50 clients said that their house is non strong plenty to with stand electrical storm or any other sort of natural catastrophe. 15 out of 50 clients are impersonal about that microfinance lead to increase in outgo on house fix and their house is strong plenty to defy electrical storm and any other sort of natural catastrophe. Looking at the bulk of clients the hypothesis clasp that microfinance leads to betterment in lodging of its clients.BibliographyPPAF ( 2004 ) PPAF Microcredit Financing Appraisal of Outcomes prepared by GALLUP Pakistan for Pakistan Poverty easing Fund.Hussein, Maliha and Shazreh Hussain ( 2003 ) The Impact of Microfinance on Poverty and Gender Equity Approachs and Evidence from Pakisian mimeo for The Pakistan Microfinance Network.W.B, 2003. World Social state of affairs study. The World Bank baseAmin, S. , Rai, A. S. , & A Topa, G. ( 2003 ) . Does microcredit make the hapless and vulnerable? Evidence from Northern Bangladesh. journal of Development Econom ics, 70 ( 1 ) , 59-82.